- Inequality preservation between industrially developed and developing states, unprofitable position in which the last are put in international trade system, interfere with their normal economic progress and realisation of the possibilities given by lawful commercial activity. The choice of illegal ways of business becomes attractive alternative to poverty. In particular, weakness and instability of the markets of agricultural production (to Bolivias, Peru and a number of other countries) were made культивирование by cooks and opium rather favourable employment for local peasants. Liberalisation of the foreign trade activity.
- The economic crises stimulating search of improvement of a financial position by participation in illegal business. Businessmen use there the saved up knowledge and experience of traditional manufactures. In the conditions of crisis participation in drugs business allows to soften temporarily a problem of employment of a considerable part of the population. In these conditions activity of illegal formations starts to be perceived positively. For example, occurrence of the Colombian cartel as one of the main cocaine centers is caused by reduction of its role as large manufacturer of the textile goods. Drug dealers have provided alternative employment of a labour, having won thereby liking of local population. Similar loyalty has essential value as complicates work of services of counterespionage for criminals and counteracts productivity of operations of law enforcement bodies.
Besides, researchers name the following events which have caused changes in the organisation and activity of the industry of manufacture of drugs, and also manufacture rapid growth last two decades of the XX-th century:
- The sharp increase in demand at cocaine in the USA in 80th years, it has led to activization of efforts of the Colombian manufacturers of the drugs directed on eliminating the basic competitors, to expand capacities on raw materials processing, to improve routes of delivery of drugs and to neutralise measures of the Colombian authorities on execution of the laws, concerning illegal drugs business;
- Intrusion of the Soviet armies into Afghanistan into 1979 and the long conflict which has followed it promoting growth of manufacture of opium which in turn, provided a source of means for conducting war against the USSR. There is a version about working out of CIA of the special program code-named «White jihad» during the Soviet-Afghani conflict which essence consisted in use of Afghanistan as base for manufacturing of opium-raw and its transfer in republics USSR. Besides, the military conflict has allowed drug dealers, having got of support of Mojaheds of Iran and Pakistan, to use these countries as transit routes;
- Islamic revolution in Iran when the help of the Iranian government to fundamentalists in Doline Bekaa has undermined antidrug operations in Lebanon and in region as a whole and has allowed Iran to become the important element in system of distribution of heroin;
- Realisation of rigid antidrug measures in Colombia and Mexico has in the mid-eighties led to changes in geography of manufacture and sale of drugs, manufacture has extended to Brazil, Venezuela, Ecuador, Surinam, Haiti and Paraguay became the important reloading points;
- Crash in 1988 of a mode Ne Fault in Myanma (Burma). Myanma already was for a long time the large manufacturer of opium, but the government Not Fault periodically carried out retaliatory operations against manufacturers and dealers opium. In the conditions of the political instability which has arisen after falling of the government Not Fault, intensity of struggle against drugs business grew weak, and as a result to the beginning of 90th years Myanma has turned to the world's largest manufacturer of opium; - A combination of intensive measures in Colombia, followed after murder of the candidate in Carlos Galany's presidents in August, 1989, and intervention of the USA to Panama in December, 1989 have led to certain shifts in the drugs industry of Latin America: Panama has ceased to exist as the large centre of drug-dealing, cocaine manufacture in Colombia was reduced and its manufacture in Peru has increased, operations with drugs in Argentina, Chile and other countries of the South America have extended; there was a relative easing of Medical Elinsky drugs cartel and strengthening of its competitor - cartel of Cali;
- Obvious saturation of the market of cocaine in the USA in the early nineties, a consequence of that became aspiration of drugs businessmen to a diversification of "product" and the markets. Latin American drug pusher began to be engaged in development and expansion of the markets in Europe, Japan and on Middle East. Cartel of Cali, for example, the beginnings рекрутировать couriers in Poland for an illicit crossing of cocaine through the Polsko-German border; law enforcement bodies of Czechia and Poland have found out the underground network of the organisations covering Poland, Czechia and the Netherlands, the Czech-Colombian company on import of agrarian production was the centre of this network;
- Incessant experiments on creation of new psychotropic substances, such as "snow". These drugs can be made in any place in the presence of corresponding chemical substances;
- Drug traffic internationalisation. So, some countries are not manufacturers of drugs and do not face sharply problems of abusing them, but appear deeply involved in process of drug-dealing owing to the geographical position. For example, Uzbekistan and Azerbaijan have got great value in drug-dealing in Central Asia, Gyana and Trinidad and Tobago became the important reloading points at movement of drugs from Colombia in the USA, and Nigeria - for a stream of heroin from Southeast and Southwest Asia.
Prompt growth and the international expansion of the drugs business, entangling the networks all new and new countries, were the major, but not defining factor of evolution of a drugs situation in the modern world. The increasing value gets active counteraction to this harm at the international and national level which is carried out on the basis of numerous programs, such, as the United Nations Program under the international control over drugs, the European plan of action on struggle against drugs (1995 - 1999), the sub regional Program under the control over drugs in South East Asia, the Interamerican drugs strategy, anti-drug and a policy the certifications spent by the USA and many other things. An important role softening with the period termination «cold war» political contradictions has played, and cooperation of the states in sphere of struggle against drugs business became practically more realizable action. For example, still impracticable cooperation programs in which would participate simultaneously Egypt, Israel, Jordan and Palestinian autonomy (meanwhile such program is entered in February, 1999) or cooperation of India and Pakistan in questions of struggle against a drug trafficking (this cooperation under the aegis of Management on struggle against drugs and preventive maintenance of criminality of the United Nations has begun in the late nineties) recently seemed.
In 1998 General Assembly of the United Nations special session on problems of drugs on which there were objects in view - twice to reduce consumption of drugs has been spent and it is essential to reduce their illegal manufacture by 2008. At that time these purposes could seem unattainable, but experience of last two years testifies that search of ways of an effective control over drugs business all the same yields positive results MacDonald D., Patterson V. Drug Training: Learning About Drugs and Working with Drug Users. London, New York: Routledge, 2009..
The report on position with drugs in the world for 2000 - work of Management of the United Nations based in Vienna on struggle against drugs and criminality preventive maintenance - marks the most essential progress in the tendency to curtailment of production of two main problem narcotic substances in the world - cocaine and heroin.
As the report affirms that thanks to the serious approach from outside the majority of the countries which are the basic manufacturers' cooks and опийного of a poppy, these plants are cultivated now in smaller, than ever, number of the countries. Pino Alarchi, chief executive УБНПП, has mentioned the following facts speaking about positive changes, occurred at the front struggle against drugs business World Drug Report 2009. // www.crime.vl.ru.:
* In 2000 in Pakistan manufacture opium a poppy has actually stopped, besides, after performance of the fifteen-year program all production is destroyed.
* In Bolivia for three years according to «the Basic plan», installed in 1997, the areas were reduced to 78 % illegal cultivation cooks.
* Manufacture cooks in the Peru which has sharply increased in 1980th years, since 1992 as promptly decreases with 50 percent reduction of deliveries of cocaine on the world market.
* For 18 months which have followed the agreement, reached between UBNPP and the President of Laos, cultivation opium in Laos which is one of three basic world manufacturers, it has been reduced to 30 %.
* In 1990th years cultivation opium a poppy in Vietnam it was reduced to 90 %.
* Manufacture opium a poppy in Thailand has decreased under a rigid management of the king of the country supported by local social institutes and the international community, in particular, by the Program of the United Nations under the international control over drugs and Management on struggle against drugs and preventive maintenance of criminality
* the Areas occupied with crops opium of a poppy have reached the lowest level since 1988, i.e. in 2009 crops опийного a poppy occupied the areas, on 17 % smaller, than in 2000. The areas on which it is cultivated the cook, too have reached the lowest level since 1987, and in 2009 cooks occupied crops on 14 % of less areas under crops, than in 2000.
* the share of illegal drugs manufacture in economy of the basic countries-manufacturers of drugs Has decreased. Even in those countries where the level of production of narcotic substances all the same has high indicators, the share of manufacture of drugs in gross national product falls - in Colombia it has fallen to 2,5 % after has risen on 7 % from the middle of 1980th years.
* By the end of last decade consumption of drugs in the developed countries was stabilised or has decreased; in comparison with the last decade cocaine consumption in the North America has fallen, abusing heroin in the Western Europe was stabilised.
«Has come to change time our sight at drugs, - the chief executive of UBNPP Pino Arlachi speaks. - the World community should refuse the psychology of the despair which has captured minds of generation, and to believe that nothing can return us back and the more so will force us to stop nothing on the reached. We should concentrate on the pragmatically, integrated, long-term approach to reduction in demand and offers concerning illegal drugs. Joint efforts we can really reach within eight years of two purposes - essential reduction of demand for drugs and destructions of manufacture cooks and opium a poppy» MacDonald D., Patterson V. Drug Training: Learning About Drugs and Working with Drug Users. London, New York: Routledge, 2009..
Thus, despite all extending expansion of drugs business, long-term experience of many countries of the world on search of ways of an effective control over it already now allows to see positive results. And, probably, in the long term the international community can fix the first successes in struggle against a drug trafficking and deepen the positive tendencies traced on a boundary of centuries.
The drugs business characteristic: criminal groups, kinds of drugs, stages of manufacture and distribution, sale territory
Illegal activity on manufacture and spread of drug addiction is now one of the most widespread sources of incomes of the transnational criminal organisations. And the drugs business industry has defined substantially dynamics and the general prospects of development of the transnational organised crime in the end of the XX-th century.
The virtual (actual) corporation which is so persistently propagandised by theorists of management as leading competitive enterprise structure of XXI century, has already found the real embodiment: 1) drugs businessmen develop the general network structure of the independent companies; 2) they communicate, professional skills, price control methods; 3) open access on the markets each other; 4) unite the potentials in attempts of creation and use of the new markets in various regions of the world.
Among experts there are disputes on drugs cartels concern what type of the organisation. Experts of Management in struggle against drugs of the USA define cartel as «the big corporation having a number of vice-presidents». Each of them heads any branch or "the consortium" which members work together when it is them arranges. When necessity disappears, they operate at own risk. The American magazine "Time" considers cartel «confederation of criminal families», and the Colombian magazine "Semana" characterises it as «federation of numerous independent groups which conclude from time to time the strategic unions». Experts of an English weekly journal "Economist" reject these definitions, declaring that the term "cartel" simplifies organizational structure of the corporations which are engaged in the drugs traffic that quite often conducts to errors in struggle against them. The Chilean experts giving a great attention to the given problem underline transnational character of drugs business: «the Drugs traffic is not one more kind of illegal activity, which great variety. This huge and difficult transnational enterprise which generated the new phenomenon in the modern world, namely so-called drugs economy» NEW YORK, Through the Eye of the Needle. Notes from THE DRUG WARS. Вy Ernest Druc-ker. 2009 .
Many analysts consider that the international narcooperations left far for frameworks of purely "economic activities". One of researchers of this problem, James Millz, characterises drugs business as follows:« The international industry of drugs is actually at all and not the industry, it is empire. Sovereign, self-satisfied and haughty it is underground empire though and often torn apart by internal struggle, always addressed to the world community the rallied front. Today it showed herself to the world so immensely money-grubbing and ruthlessly exploiter, as well as any imperial state of a XIX-th century, so extensive, as well as British Empire, so capable to resolute rallying, as well as the American republic. Aggressive and violent by the nature the underground empire has own armies, diplomats and reconnaissance services, banks, merchant marine fleets and airlines. She aspires to expansion of the domination by all ways - from illegal subversive activities before open war ».
At all variety of cartels in them the fear cast-iron discipline, because punishment one - death reigns. Survivability of the transnational criminal organisations also is to no small degree connected by that, performing the operations, they completely ignore borders of the states, the national sovereignty while the international and national forces combating them, are obliged to operate by the strict rules established by these attributes of statehood.
The transnational organisations which are engaged in drugs business, have certain commodity markets not only in the territorial relation, but also are frequent by "production" kinds (heroin, cocaine, marihuana, etc.) Besides, they can be substantially differentiated functionally, on production phases and spreads of drug addiction.
Parts of transnational organisations are focused on multistage process: from manufacture before realisation of any one drug (for example, heroin). The control over all chain in the drugs business industry: from cultivation drug contents plants and manufacture of natural or synthetic drugs before their sale and gain legalisation - allows such organisations to weaken actions of law enforcement bodies on drug trafficking suppression and repeatedly to raise profit on a difference of the prices between wholesale and retail. A vivid example such ТПО are the Colombian drugs cartels which, as a matter of fact, represent industrial concerns on manufacture of cocaine from raw materials growing in the South America. They supervise export of the made cocaine on the markets of the USA, Canada and Europe.
Others transnational organisations prefer to carry out activity only at separate stages of a drug trafficking. So, for example, the Nigerian criminal organisations are engaged basically in transportation and distribution of different kinds of drugs. Nigeria continues to remain the basic link in drug-dealing structure on the African continent, and also the main reloading point through which drug traffic between the countries East and the Western world is carried out. The Mexican cartels, without being engaged in manufacture of drugs, carry out only their transportation and distribution. The Turkish organisations are known for processing of heroin and its delivery in countries of Western Europe.
Thus, drugs business is multidimensional, its characteristic should be carried out on several parametres: to kinds of drugs, stages of their manufacture and distribution, manufacture and sale territories, the basic routes and ways of delivery, change of tendencies of these parametres for the last years.
The characteristic of the markets of principal views of drugs
According to the experts, today in the world it is made from 1 to 1,5 thousand t chlorohydrin cocaine. The basic consumers of a drug - the USA, Europe, Japan, Hong Kong. In the United States which is the heavy user of cocaine in the world, according to the Interpol, is late more than 70 % of illegal deliveries of a drug. The basic directions of cocaine contraband - the American-Mexican border and Florida. A parity "volume - the price" does cocaine by one of the most favourable in drugs business. It became one of the reasons of the greatest level of integration and rigid structurization of a cocaine drug mafia (cartels) in comparison with suppliers of other kinds of drugs World Drug Report 2009. // www.crime.vl.ru..
In 2009 the volume of withdrawals of cocaine has made nearby 495 t that on 33 % more than in 2008. The cocaine most part is still withdrawn on the American continent, mainly in the countries adjoining on the states - manufacturers of cocaine: Chile, Ecuador, the countries of Central America, Venezuela and Paraguay. In 2009 55 % of all cases of withdrawal of cocaine it was necessary to the South America (including Central America and Caribbean basin), 28 % - to the North America and 17 % - to Europe. Steady growth of volume of withdrawals of cocaine in Europe that reflects the basic changes in structure of a turn of cocaine became the most amazing tendency of last years Brecher, Edward. The Consumer Report on Licit and Illicit Drugs. N.Y., 2009..
